A web page, as an information set, can contain many kinds of information, which is able to be seen, heard or interact by the end user:
Perceived (rendered) information:
Textual information: with diverse render variations.
Non-textual information:
Static images on raster graphics, typically GIF, JPEG or PNG; or vector formats as SVG or Flash.
Animated images typically Animated GIF and SVG, but also may be Flash, Shockwave, or Java applet.
Audio, typically MIDI or WAV formats or Java applets.
Video, WMV (Windows), RM (Real Media), FLV (Flash Video), MPG, MOV (Quicktime)
Interactive information: more complex, glued to interface; see dynamic web page.
For "on page" interaction:
Interactive text: see DHTML.
Interactive illustrations: ranging from "click to play" image to games, typically using script orchestration, Flash, Java applets, SVG, or Shockwave.
Buttons: forms providing alternative interface, typically for use with script orchestration and DHTML.
For "between pages" interaction:
Hyperlinks: standard "change page" reactivity.
Forms: providing more interaction with the server and server-side databases.
Internal (hidden) information:
Comments
Metadata with semantic meta-information, Charset information, Document Type Definition (DTD), etc.
Diagramation and style information: information about rendered items (like image size attributes) and visual specifications, as Cascading Style Sheets (CSS).
Scripts, usually JavaScript, complement interactivity and functionality.
Note: on server-side the web page may also have "Processing Instruction Information Items".
The web page can also contain dynamically adapted information elements, dependent upon the rendering browser or end-user location (through the use of IP address tracking and/or "cookie" information).
From a more general/wide point of view, some information (grouped) elements, like a navigation bar, are uniform for all website pages, like a standard. These kind of "website standard information" are supplied by technologies like web template systems.
Friday, September 5, 2008
Web page
A web page or webpage is a resource of information that is suitable for the World Wide Web and can be accessed through a web browser. This information is usually in HTML or XHTML format, and may provide navigation to other web pages via hypertext links.
Web pages may be retrieved from a local computer or from a remote web server. The web server may restrict access only to a private network, e.g. a corporate intranet, or it may publish pages on the World Wide Web. Web pages are requested and served from web servers using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
Web pages may consist of files of static text stored within the web server's file system (static web pages), or the web server may construct the (X)HTML for each web page when it is requested by a browser (dynamic web pages). Client-side scripting can make web pages more responsive to user input once in the client browser.
Web pages may be retrieved from a local computer or from a remote web server. The web server may restrict access only to a private network, e.g. a corporate intranet, or it may publish pages on the World Wide Web. Web pages are requested and served from web servers using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
Web pages may consist of files of static text stored within the web server's file system (static web pages), or the web server may construct the (X)HTML for each web page when it is requested by a browser (dynamic web pages). Client-side scripting can make web pages more responsive to user input once in the client browser.
HANTU
Kepercayaan mengenai hantu roh atau semangat
Hantu seringkali digambarkan sebagai bersaiz dan berbentuk manusia (walaupun sesetengah gambaran menyebut hantu haiwan), tetapi biasanya digambarkan sebagai "berkilauan", "berbayang", "lutsinar", "seperti kabus", atau seumpamanya. Hantu tidak mempunyai tubuh kasar seperti manusia, hanya bayangan badan (astral body). Kadang kala ia tidak nampak dilihat tetapi dalam fenomena lain seperti pergerakan objek, lampu terpasang atau tertutup dengan sendiri, bunyi, dll, yang tidak mempunyai penjelasan logik.
Di Barat mereka yang mempercayai hantu kadang-kala menganggap mereka sebagai roh yang tidak aman selepas mati, dan dengan itu berkeliaran di Bumi. Ketidakupayaan mendapat keamanan dijelaskan sebagai ada pekerjaan yang belum selesai, seperti mangsa yang mencari keadilan atau dendam selepas mati. Penjenayah, kadang-kala berlegar untuk mengelak Purgatori atau Neraka. Kadang-kala hantu dikatakan berada di awang-awangan, tempat, menurut nonorthodox doktarin Khatolik, antara Syurga dan Neraka di mana roh bayi yang tidak dibaptise tinggal. Penting bagi mengetahui bahawa walaupun Protestan dan Kristian Evangelikal aliran utama percaya kewujudan hantu secara prinsip (principalities), mereka tidak mempercayai hantu (sebagai semangat orang mati) dan meletakkan hantu ganas, seperti poltergeist, kepada tindakan jembalang, sama seperti Islam. Dalam Khatolok dan Kristian Anglikan (dan Christian Spiritualism), percayakan hantu adalah diterima dan boleh dibincang dengan paderi (clergy).
Dalam kebudayaan Asia (seperti di China), ramai orang mempercayai kepada kelahiran semula (reincarnation). Hantu merupakan roh yang enggan "dikitar semula" kerana mereka mempunyai perkara yang belum selesai, sama seperti di Barat. Exorcist boleh membantu menghalau atau mengitar semula hantu (reincarnated). Dalam tradisi Cina, selain dilahirkan semula, hantu boleh menjadi kekal (immortal) dan menjadi separa dewa (demigod), atau ia boleh pergi ke neraka dan menderita kekal selamanya, atau ia boleh mati sekali lagi dan menjadi "hantu kepada hantu". Orang Cina juga percaya bahawa sesetengah hantu, terutamanya mereka yang mati lemas, membunuh manusia bagi menghalang mereka hak dilahirkan semula. Mangsa "pembunuh" paranormal dikenali sebagai ti4si2gui3 (替死鬼), iaitu bagi Cina sama seperti kambing hitam.
Dalam ugama Hindu, maklumat terperinci mengenai hantu terdapat dalam Garuda Purana, skripture dari Vedic tradisi (Hindu).
Kedua-dua Timur dan Barah berkongsi asas yang sama mengenai hantu. Mereka merayau-rayau sekitar tempat mereka sering pergi semasa hidup atau tempat mereka meninggal. Tempat sedemikian dikenali sebagai "rumah berhantu"; kitaran yang mereka lakukan dikenali sebagai "menghantui". Mereka seringkali mengenakan pakaian yang mana mereka sering pakai semasa hidup.
Samsara Buddhist memasukkan konsep alam hantu lapar. Sentient being dalam alam tersebut dirujuk sebagai Hantu Lapar kerana ikatan mereka kepada dunia ini. Asura juga dirujuk sebagai "hantu bergaduh".
Hantu seringkali digambarkan sebagai bersaiz dan berbentuk manusia (walaupun sesetengah gambaran menyebut hantu haiwan), tetapi biasanya digambarkan sebagai "berkilauan", "berbayang", "lutsinar", "seperti kabus", atau seumpamanya. Hantu tidak mempunyai tubuh kasar seperti manusia, hanya bayangan badan (astral body). Kadang kala ia tidak nampak dilihat tetapi dalam fenomena lain seperti pergerakan objek, lampu terpasang atau tertutup dengan sendiri, bunyi, dll, yang tidak mempunyai penjelasan logik.
Di Barat mereka yang mempercayai hantu kadang-kala menganggap mereka sebagai roh yang tidak aman selepas mati, dan dengan itu berkeliaran di Bumi. Ketidakupayaan mendapat keamanan dijelaskan sebagai ada pekerjaan yang belum selesai, seperti mangsa yang mencari keadilan atau dendam selepas mati. Penjenayah, kadang-kala berlegar untuk mengelak Purgatori atau Neraka. Kadang-kala hantu dikatakan berada di awang-awangan, tempat, menurut nonorthodox doktarin Khatolik, antara Syurga dan Neraka di mana roh bayi yang tidak dibaptise tinggal. Penting bagi mengetahui bahawa walaupun Protestan dan Kristian Evangelikal aliran utama percaya kewujudan hantu secara prinsip (principalities), mereka tidak mempercayai hantu (sebagai semangat orang mati) dan meletakkan hantu ganas, seperti poltergeist, kepada tindakan jembalang, sama seperti Islam. Dalam Khatolok dan Kristian Anglikan (dan Christian Spiritualism), percayakan hantu adalah diterima dan boleh dibincang dengan paderi (clergy).
Dalam kebudayaan Asia (seperti di China), ramai orang mempercayai kepada kelahiran semula (reincarnation). Hantu merupakan roh yang enggan "dikitar semula" kerana mereka mempunyai perkara yang belum selesai, sama seperti di Barat. Exorcist boleh membantu menghalau atau mengitar semula hantu (reincarnated). Dalam tradisi Cina, selain dilahirkan semula, hantu boleh menjadi kekal (immortal) dan menjadi separa dewa (demigod), atau ia boleh pergi ke neraka dan menderita kekal selamanya, atau ia boleh mati sekali lagi dan menjadi "hantu kepada hantu". Orang Cina juga percaya bahawa sesetengah hantu, terutamanya mereka yang mati lemas, membunuh manusia bagi menghalang mereka hak dilahirkan semula. Mangsa "pembunuh" paranormal dikenali sebagai ti4si2gui3 (替死鬼), iaitu bagi Cina sama seperti kambing hitam.
Dalam ugama Hindu, maklumat terperinci mengenai hantu terdapat dalam Garuda Purana, skripture dari Vedic tradisi (Hindu).
Kedua-dua Timur dan Barah berkongsi asas yang sama mengenai hantu. Mereka merayau-rayau sekitar tempat mereka sering pergi semasa hidup atau tempat mereka meninggal. Tempat sedemikian dikenali sebagai "rumah berhantu"; kitaran yang mereka lakukan dikenali sebagai "menghantui". Mereka seringkali mengenakan pakaian yang mana mereka sering pakai semasa hidup.
Samsara Buddhist memasukkan konsep alam hantu lapar. Sentient being dalam alam tersebut dirujuk sebagai Hantu Lapar kerana ikatan mereka kepada dunia ini. Asura juga dirujuk sebagai "hantu bergaduh".
Ghost / hantu
Historical background
The belief in ghosts as souls of the departed is closely related to the ancient concept of animism, which attributed souls to everything in nature, including human beings, animals, plants, rocks, etc. [6] As the nineteenth-century anthropologist James Frazer explained in his classic work, The Golden Bough, souls were seen as the creature within that animated the body:
"If a man lives and moves, it can only be because he has a little man or animal inside, who moves him. The animal inside the animal, the man inside the man, is the soul. And as the activity of an animal or man is explained by the presence of the soul, so the repose of sleep or death is explained by its absence; sleep or trance being the temporary, death being the permanent absence of the soul... "[7]
Although the human soul was sometimes symbolically or literally depicted in ancient cultures as a bird or other animal, it was widely held that the soul was an exact reproduction of the body in every feature, even down to clothing the person wore. This is depicted in artwork from various ancient cultures, including such works as the Egyptian Book of the Dead, which shows deceased people in the afterlife appearing much as they did before death, including the style of dress.
Another widespread belief concerning ghosts is that they were composed of a misty, airy, or subtle material. Anthropologists speculate that this may also stem from early beliefs that ghosts were the person within the person, most noticeable in ancient cultures as a person's breath, which upon exhaling in colder climates appears visibly as a white mist.[6] This belief may have also fostered the metaphorical meaning of "breath" in certain languages, such as the Latin spiritus and the Greek pneuma, which by analogy became extended to mean the soul. In the Bible, God is depicted as animating Adam with a breath.
In many cultures malignant, restless, ghosts are distinguished from the more benign spirits which are the subject of Ancestor worship.[8] Although the evidence for ghosts is largely anecdotal, the belief in ghosts throughout history has remained widespread and persistent.
Arguably the first apparition of a ghost recorded in Western culture was in 1211, during the Albigensian Crusade[9]. Gervase of Tilbury, Marshal of Arles, wrote that the image of Guilhem, a boy recently murdered in the forest, appeared in his cousin's home in Beaucaire, near Avignon, France. This series of "visits" lasted all of the summer. Through his cousin, who spoke for him, the boy allegedly held conversations with anyone who wished, until the local priest requested to speak to the boy directly, leading to an extended disquisition on theology. The boy narrated the trauma of death and the unhappiness of his fellow souls in Purgatory, and reported that God was most pleased with the ongoing Crusade against the Cathar heretics, launched three years earlier. The time of the Albigensian Crusade in southern France was marked by intense and prolonged warfare, this constant bloodshed and dislocation of populations being the context for these reported vists by the murdered boy.
Apparitions of the recently deceased, at the moment of their death, to their friends and relations are very commonly reported.[10] One celebrated example was the strange appearance of Vice-Admiral Sir George Tryon, walking through the drawing room, of his family home in Eaton Square, London, looking straight ahead, without exchanging a word to anyone, in front of several guests at a party being given by his wife on 22 June 1893 whilst he was supposed to be in a ship of the Mediterranean Squadron, manouvering of the coast of Syria. Subsequently it was reported that he had gone down with his ship, the HMS Victoria, that very same night, after it had collided with the HMS Camperdown following an unexplained and bizarre order to turn the ship in the direction of the other vessel.[11] Such crisis apparitions have received serious study by parapsychologists with various explanations given to account for them, including telepathy, as well as the traditional view that they represent disembodied spirits.[12][13]
In many traditional accounts, ghosts were thought to be deceased people looking for vengeance, or imprisoned on earth for bad things they did during life. The appearance of a ghost has often been regarded as an omen or portent of death. Seeing one's own ghostly double or "fetch" is a related omen of death.[14]
Most cultures have ghost stories in their mythologies. Many stories from the Middle Ages and the Romantic era rely on the macabre and the fantastic, and ghosts are a major theme in literature from those eras. Ghost stories date back to ancient times, and can be found in many different cultures. The Chinese philosopher, Mo Tzu (470-391 BC), is quoted as having said:
"The way to find out whether anything exists or not is to depend on the testimony of the ears and eyes of the multitude. If some have heard it or some have seen it then we have to say it exists. If no one has heard it and no one has seen it then we have to say it does not exist. So, then, why not go to some village or some district and inquire? If from antiquity to the present, and since the beginning of man, there are men who have seen the bodies of ghosts and spirits and heard their voices, how can we say that they do not exist? If none have heard them and none have seen them, then how can we say they do? But those who deny the existence of the spirits say: "Many in the world have heard and seen something of ghosts and spirits. Since they vary in testimony, who are to be accepted as really having heard and seen them?" Mo Tzu said: As we are to rely on what many have jointly seen and what many have jointly heard, the case of Tu Po is to be accepted."[15] (note: King Hsuan (827-783 BC) executed his minister, Tu Po, on false charges even after being warned that Tu Po's ghost would seek revenge. Three years later, according to historical chronicles, Tu Po's ghost shot and killed Hsuan with a bow and arrow before an assembly of feudal lords.)
One of the earliest known ghost "sightings" in the west took place in Athens, Greece.[16] Pliny the Younger (c. (50 AD) described it in a letter to Licinius Sura: Athenodoros Cananites (c. 74 BC – 7 AD), a Stoic philosopher, decided to rent a large, Athenian house, to investigate widespread rumors that it was haunted. Athenodoros staked out at the house that night, and, sure enough, a disheveled, aged spectre, bound at feet and hands with rattling chains, eventually "appeared". The spirit then beckoned for Athenodoros to follow him; Athenodoros complied, but the ghost soon vanished. The philosopher marked the spot where the old man had disappeared, and, on the next day, advised the magistrates to dig there. The man's shackled bones were reportedly uncovered three years later. After a proper burial, the hauntings ceased.[17]
Many Eastern religious traditions also subscribe to the concept of ghosts. The Hindu Garuda Purana has detailed information about ghosts.[18]
The Hebrew Torah and the Bible contain few references to ghosts, associating spiritism with forbidden occult activities cf. Deuteronomy 18:11. The most notable reference is in the First Book of Samuel (I Samuel 28:7-19 KJV), in which a disguised King Saul has the Witch of Endor summon the spirit of Samuel. In the New Testament, Jesus has to persuade the Disciples that he is not a ghost following the resurrection, Matthew 24. In a similar vein, Jesus' followers at first believe him to be a ghost when they see him walking on water.
The Child ballad Sweet William's Ghost recounts the story of a ghost returning to beg a woman to free him from his promise to marry her, as he obviously cannot being dead; her refusal would mean his damnation. This reflects a popular British belief that the dead would haunt their lovers if they took up with a new love without some formal release.[19]
The Unquiet Grave expresses a belief even more widespread, found in various location over Europe: ghosts can stem from the excessive grief of the living, whose mourning interferes with the dead's peaceful rest.[20]
In many folktales from around the world, the hero arranges for the burial of a dead man. Soon after, he gains a companion who aids him and, in the end, the hero's companion reveals that he is in fact the dead man.[21] Instances of this include the Italian fairy tale Fair Brow and the Swedish The Bird 'Grip'.
The belief in ghosts as souls of the departed is closely related to the ancient concept of animism, which attributed souls to everything in nature, including human beings, animals, plants, rocks, etc. [6] As the nineteenth-century anthropologist James Frazer explained in his classic work, The Golden Bough, souls were seen as the creature within that animated the body:
"If a man lives and moves, it can only be because he has a little man or animal inside, who moves him. The animal inside the animal, the man inside the man, is the soul. And as the activity of an animal or man is explained by the presence of the soul, so the repose of sleep or death is explained by its absence; sleep or trance being the temporary, death being the permanent absence of the soul... "[7]
Although the human soul was sometimes symbolically or literally depicted in ancient cultures as a bird or other animal, it was widely held that the soul was an exact reproduction of the body in every feature, even down to clothing the person wore. This is depicted in artwork from various ancient cultures, including such works as the Egyptian Book of the Dead, which shows deceased people in the afterlife appearing much as they did before death, including the style of dress.
Another widespread belief concerning ghosts is that they were composed of a misty, airy, or subtle material. Anthropologists speculate that this may also stem from early beliefs that ghosts were the person within the person, most noticeable in ancient cultures as a person's breath, which upon exhaling in colder climates appears visibly as a white mist.[6] This belief may have also fostered the metaphorical meaning of "breath" in certain languages, such as the Latin spiritus and the Greek pneuma, which by analogy became extended to mean the soul. In the Bible, God is depicted as animating Adam with a breath.
In many cultures malignant, restless, ghosts are distinguished from the more benign spirits which are the subject of Ancestor worship.[8] Although the evidence for ghosts is largely anecdotal, the belief in ghosts throughout history has remained widespread and persistent.
Arguably the first apparition of a ghost recorded in Western culture was in 1211, during the Albigensian Crusade[9]. Gervase of Tilbury, Marshal of Arles, wrote that the image of Guilhem, a boy recently murdered in the forest, appeared in his cousin's home in Beaucaire, near Avignon, France. This series of "visits" lasted all of the summer. Through his cousin, who spoke for him, the boy allegedly held conversations with anyone who wished, until the local priest requested to speak to the boy directly, leading to an extended disquisition on theology. The boy narrated the trauma of death and the unhappiness of his fellow souls in Purgatory, and reported that God was most pleased with the ongoing Crusade against the Cathar heretics, launched three years earlier. The time of the Albigensian Crusade in southern France was marked by intense and prolonged warfare, this constant bloodshed and dislocation of populations being the context for these reported vists by the murdered boy.
Apparitions of the recently deceased, at the moment of their death, to their friends and relations are very commonly reported.[10] One celebrated example was the strange appearance of Vice-Admiral Sir George Tryon, walking through the drawing room, of his family home in Eaton Square, London, looking straight ahead, without exchanging a word to anyone, in front of several guests at a party being given by his wife on 22 June 1893 whilst he was supposed to be in a ship of the Mediterranean Squadron, manouvering of the coast of Syria. Subsequently it was reported that he had gone down with his ship, the HMS Victoria, that very same night, after it had collided with the HMS Camperdown following an unexplained and bizarre order to turn the ship in the direction of the other vessel.[11] Such crisis apparitions have received serious study by parapsychologists with various explanations given to account for them, including telepathy, as well as the traditional view that they represent disembodied spirits.[12][13]
In many traditional accounts, ghosts were thought to be deceased people looking for vengeance, or imprisoned on earth for bad things they did during life. The appearance of a ghost has often been regarded as an omen or portent of death. Seeing one's own ghostly double or "fetch" is a related omen of death.[14]
Most cultures have ghost stories in their mythologies. Many stories from the Middle Ages and the Romantic era rely on the macabre and the fantastic, and ghosts are a major theme in literature from those eras. Ghost stories date back to ancient times, and can be found in many different cultures. The Chinese philosopher, Mo Tzu (470-391 BC), is quoted as having said:
"The way to find out whether anything exists or not is to depend on the testimony of the ears and eyes of the multitude. If some have heard it or some have seen it then we have to say it exists. If no one has heard it and no one has seen it then we have to say it does not exist. So, then, why not go to some village or some district and inquire? If from antiquity to the present, and since the beginning of man, there are men who have seen the bodies of ghosts and spirits and heard their voices, how can we say that they do not exist? If none have heard them and none have seen them, then how can we say they do? But those who deny the existence of the spirits say: "Many in the world have heard and seen something of ghosts and spirits. Since they vary in testimony, who are to be accepted as really having heard and seen them?" Mo Tzu said: As we are to rely on what many have jointly seen and what many have jointly heard, the case of Tu Po is to be accepted."[15] (note: King Hsuan (827-783 BC) executed his minister, Tu Po, on false charges even after being warned that Tu Po's ghost would seek revenge. Three years later, according to historical chronicles, Tu Po's ghost shot and killed Hsuan with a bow and arrow before an assembly of feudal lords.)
One of the earliest known ghost "sightings" in the west took place in Athens, Greece.[16] Pliny the Younger (c. (50 AD) described it in a letter to Licinius Sura: Athenodoros Cananites (c. 74 BC – 7 AD), a Stoic philosopher, decided to rent a large, Athenian house, to investigate widespread rumors that it was haunted. Athenodoros staked out at the house that night, and, sure enough, a disheveled, aged spectre, bound at feet and hands with rattling chains, eventually "appeared". The spirit then beckoned for Athenodoros to follow him; Athenodoros complied, but the ghost soon vanished. The philosopher marked the spot where the old man had disappeared, and, on the next day, advised the magistrates to dig there. The man's shackled bones were reportedly uncovered three years later. After a proper burial, the hauntings ceased.[17]
Many Eastern religious traditions also subscribe to the concept of ghosts. The Hindu Garuda Purana has detailed information about ghosts.[18]
The Hebrew Torah and the Bible contain few references to ghosts, associating spiritism with forbidden occult activities cf. Deuteronomy 18:11. The most notable reference is in the First Book of Samuel (I Samuel 28:7-19 KJV), in which a disguised King Saul has the Witch of Endor summon the spirit of Samuel. In the New Testament, Jesus has to persuade the Disciples that he is not a ghost following the resurrection, Matthew 24. In a similar vein, Jesus' followers at first believe him to be a ghost when they see him walking on water.
The Child ballad Sweet William's Ghost recounts the story of a ghost returning to beg a woman to free him from his promise to marry her, as he obviously cannot being dead; her refusal would mean his damnation. This reflects a popular British belief that the dead would haunt their lovers if they took up with a new love without some formal release.[19]
The Unquiet Grave expresses a belief even more widespread, found in various location over Europe: ghosts can stem from the excessive grief of the living, whose mourning interferes with the dead's peaceful rest.[20]
In many folktales from around the world, the hero arranges for the burial of a dead man. Soon after, he gains a companion who aids him and, in the end, the hero's companion reveals that he is in fact the dead man.[21] Instances of this include the Italian fairy tale Fair Brow and the Swedish The Bird 'Grip'.
Tuesday, August 12, 2008
Software systems
There is a wide range of software systems, such as Java Server Pages (JSP), the PHP and Perl programming languages, Active Server Pages (ASP) and ColdFusion (CFM) that are available to generate dynamic Web systems and dynamic sites. Sites may also include content that is retrieved from one or more databases or by using XML-based technologies such as RSS.
Static content may also be dynamically generated either periodically, or if certain conditions for regeneration occur (cached) in order to avoid the performance loss of initiating the dynamic engine on a per-user or per-connection basis.
Plugins are available to expand the features and abilities of Web browsers, which use them to show active content, such as Flash, Shockwave or applets written in Java. Dynamic HTML also provides for user interactivity and realtime element updating within Web pages (i.e., pages don't have to be loaded or reloaded to effect any changes), mainly using the DOM and JavaScript, support which is built-in to most modern Web browsers.
Turning a website into an income source is a common practice for web-developers and website owners. There are several methods for creating a website business which fall into two broad categories, as defined below.
1. Content based sites
Some websites derive revenue by selling advertising space on the site (see contextual ads).
2. Product or service based sites
Some websites derive revenue by offering products or services. In the case of e-commerce websites, the products or services may be purchased at the website itself, by entering credit card or other payment information into a payment form on the site. While most business websites serve as a shop window for existing brick and mortar businesses, it is increasingly the case that some websites are businesses in their own right; that is, the products they offer are only available for purchase on the web.
Websites occasionally derive income from a combination of these two practices. For example, a website such as an online auctions website may charge the users of its auction service to list an auction, but also display third-party advertisements on the site, from which it derives further income.
Dynamic website
A Dynamic Website is one that does not have web pages stored on the server in the same form as the user will view them. Instead, the web page content changes automatically and/or frequently based on certain criteria. It generally collates information on the hop each time a page is requested.
There are two meanings for a dynamic website. The first is that the web page code is constructed dynamically, piece by piece. The second is that the web page content displayed varies based on certain criteria. The criteria may be pre-defined rules or may be based on variable user input.
A dynamic website is also called a Web Application, a Data-driven website or an oCRAFT website because it presents variable information that is tailored to a particular user. It may accept a user’s input and respond to the request. For example, a user can enter text into a login form or keyword search, which prompts the website to fulfill the request and return a unique result. In addition, the user may be able to perform tasks that may alter the website itself, such as post a comment or update a user profile. Examples of task-based websites include, online banking, shopping, e-learning, and social networking. Furthermore, the website may be able to make instant decisions on the fly in various situations, such as online quiz scoring or credit card processing.
This type of website usually displays different information depending on the visitor, thus the information is dynamic. Similar to talking to a customer service representative on the telephone, a dynamic website will provide personalized, real-time information and take the appropriate action intended to serve the customer’s needs immediately. The website usually requires advanced programming and a database, and it often includes admin tools for the website owner to update the website content frequently and easily.
In summary, visitors are able to control what information they wish to receive via a dynamic website, instead of settling for only static content that the website owner has decided to offer. In addition, a visitor may be able to manipulate the content of the website and perform a multitude of tasks.
The term oCRAFT website stands for Online Customer Request and Fulfillment Tools. A website that accepts user input is said to have a customer request tool, such as a form. A website that generates dynamic results, makes decisions or enables a user to perform tasks is said to have a customer fulfillment tool, such as logins, searches, update/edit/post user data, banking, shopping, e-learning and social networking.
Many commonly known modules are oCRAFT tools, such as Forums, Blogs, Wikis, photo galleries, calendars and more. Others include: data banks, directories, listings, profiles, surveys, questionnaires, quizzes/tests, registration/entry forms, order/quote requests, financial calculators, graphs/charts, event management, order tracking, inventory control, product catalog, checkout, e-commerce, auctions, classifieds, social networking, match-making, job boards, portfolio, logins, subscriptions, memberships, affiliate programs, e-learning, course registration/scheduling, delivery/service/appointment scheduling, task tracking, support ticket system, reservations, approval process/work flows, member services, account/profile management, investment account management, lead capture/response/routing, chat, email and much more.
oCRAFT can also be used internally and for company intranets, with tools such as employee/shift scheduling, project management, forecasting/analysis, client relationship management (CRM), content management system (CMS), sales force automation, work order and service request system, workforce training and more.
The main purpose behind a dynamic site is that it is much simpler to maintain a few web pages plus a database than it is to build and update hundreds or thousands of individual web pages and links. In one way, a data-driven website is similar to a static site because the information that is presented on the site is still limited to what the website owner has allowed to be stored in the database. The advantage is that there is usually a lot more information stored in a database and made available to users.
A dynamic website would call various bits of information from a database and put them together in a pre-defined format to present the reader with a coherent page. It interacts with users in a variety of ways including by reading cookies recognizing users' previous history, session variables, server side variables etc., or by using direct interaction (form elements, mouseovers, etc.). A site can display the current state of a dialogue between users, monitor a changing situation, or provide information in some way personalized to the requirements of the individual user.
Some countries, for example the U.K. have introduced legislation regarding web accessibility [1].
Website styles
Static Website
A Static Website is one that has web pages stored on the server in the same form as the user will view them. It is primarily coded in HTML (Hyper-text Markup Language).
A static website is also called a Classic website, a 5-page website or a Brochure website because it simply presents pre-defined information to the user. It may include information about a company and its products and services via text, photos, Flash animation, audio/video and interactive menus and navigation.
This type of website usually displays the same information to all visitors, thus the information is static. Similar to handing out a printed brochure to customers or clients, a static website will generally provide consistent, standard information for an extended period of time. Although the website owner may make updates periodically, it is a manual process to edit the text, photos and other content and may require basic website design skills and software.
In summary, visitors are not able to control what information they receive via a static website, and must instead settle for whatever content the website owner has decided to offer at that time.
They are edited using four broad categories of software:
- Text editors. such as Notepad or TextEdit, where the HTML is manipulated directly within the editor program
- WYSIWYG offline editors. such as Microsoft FrontPage and Adobe Dreamweaver (previously Macromedia Dreamweaver), where the site is edited using a GUI interface and the underlying HTML is generated automatically by the editor software
- WYSIWYG Online editors, where the any media rich online presentation like websites, widgets, intro, blogs etc. are created on a flash based platform.
- Template-based editors, such as Rapidweaver and iWeb, which allow users to quickly create and upload websites to a web server without having to know anything about HTML, as they just pick a suitable template from a palette and add pictures and text to it in a DTP-like fashion without ever having to see any HTML code.
History of web site
he first online website appeared in 1991.[citation needed] On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone.[1]
Before the introduction of HTML and HTTP other protocols such as file transfer protocol and the gopher protocol were used to retrieve individual files from a server. These protocols offer a simple directory structure which the user navigates and choses files to download. Documents were most often presented as plain text files without formatting or encoded in word processor formats.
Web site history includes four main stages depending on the complexity of design and the level of development of Information Technologies.
The first stage is associated with the invention of the first web browser, Mosaic (1991). Website design at that time was determined by technical restrictions including inability to transfer the data quickly, monochrome monitors and slow modem connection. The design of the sites was plain and simple with headline banners and a full-page text.
With time HTML was improved, so the web sites of the second stage were more professional and oversaturated with colored graphics, numerous icons and bullets. Although designers began to pay attention to the load time, web design was still limited with the necessity to adapt site to the certain screen resolution and to 8bit or 24bit monitors.
Introduction of Flash technology marked the beginning of the third stage of web design history with its main purpose to deliver media content to the Internet users and attract more customers. The site structure and its navigation system came into the picture in order to allow users to find what they need quickly.
In practice, the fourth stage repeats the main principles of the third stage with some improvements and distinguishing characteristic such as abundance of multi-media content and unique web–driven selling propositions which can only be delivered on the World Wide Web.
Website
A website (alternatively, web site or Web site, a back-construction from the proper noun World Wide Web) is a collection of Web pages, images, videos or other digital assets that is hosted on one or more web servers, usually accessible via the Internet.
A Web page is a document, typically written in (X)HTML, that is almost always accessible via HTTP, a protocol that transfers information from the Web server to display in the user's Web browser.
All publicly accessible websites are seen collectively as constituting the "World Wide Web".
The pages of websites can usually be accessed from a common root URL called the homepage, and usually reside on the same physical server. The URLs of the pages organize them into a hierarchy, although the hyperlinks between them control how the reader perceives the overall structure and how the traffic flows between the different parts of the sites.
Some websites require a subscription to access some or all of their content. Examples of subscription sites include many business sites, parts of many news sites, academic journal sites, gaming sites, message boards, Web-based e-mail, services, social networking websites, and sites providing real-time stock market data. Because they require authentication to view the content they are technically an IntranetsiteAreas of work
Information Systems has a number of different areas of work:
- Information Systems Strategy
- Information Systems Management
- Information Systems Development
Each of which branches out into a number of sub disciplines, that overlap with other science and managerial disciplines such as computer science, pure and engineering sciences, social and behavioral sciences, and business management.
There are a wide variety of career paths in the information systems discipline. "Workers with specialized technical knowledge and strong communications skills will have the best prospects. People with management skills and an understanding of business practices and principles will have excellent opportunities, as companies are increasingly looking to technology to drive their revenue." [5]
Information technology development
The IT Department partly governs the information technology development, use, application and influence on a business or corporation. A computer based information system, following a definition of Langefors[6], is:
- a technologically implemented medium for recording, storing, and disseminating linguistic expressions,
- as well as for drawing conclusions from such expressions.
which can be formulated as a generalized information systems design mathematical program.
History of information systems
The study of information systems, originated as a sub-discipline of computer science, in an attempt to understand and rationalize the management of technology within organizations. It has matured into a major field of management, that is increasingly being emphasized as an important area of research in management studies, and is taught at all major universities and business schools in the world.
Information technology is a very important malleable resource available to executives.[4] Many companies have created a position of Chief Information Officer (CIO) that sits on the executive board with the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), Chief Financial Officer (CFO), Chief Operating Officer (COO) and Chief Technical Officer (CTO).The CTO may also serve as CIO, and vice versa.
Information systems
The term information system (BCIS, IS) sometimes refers to a system of persons, data records and activities that process the data and information in an organization, and it includes the organization's manual and automated processes. Computer-based information systems are the field of study for information technology, elements of which are sometimes called an "information system" as well, a usage some consider to be incorrect.
Information technology (IT)
Information technology (IT), as defined by the Information Technology Association of America (ITAA), is "the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems, particularly software applications and computer hardware." IT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store, protect, process, transmit, and securely retrieve information.
Today, the term information technology has ballooned to encompass many aspects of computing and technology, and the term is more recognizable than ever before. The information technology umbrella can be quite large, covering many fields. IT professionals perform a variety of duties that range from installing applications to designing complex computer networks and information databases. A few of the duties that IT professionals perform may include data management, networking, engineering computer hardware, database and software design, as well as the management and administration of entire systems. When computer and communications technologies are combined, the result is information technology, or "infotech". Information Technology (IT) is a general term that describes any technology that helps to produce, manipulate, store, communicate, and/or disseminate information. Presumably, when speaking of Information Technology (IT) as a whole, it is noted that the use of computers and information are associated.
Technology
Technology is a broad concept that deals with a species' usage and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt to its environment. In human society, it is a consequence of science and engineering, although several technological advances predate the two concepts. Technology is a term with origins in the Greek "technologia", "τεχνολογία" — "techne", "τέχνη" ("craft") and "logia", "λογία" ("saying").[1] However, a strict definition is elusive; "technology" can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines, hardware or utensils, but can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. The term can either be applied generally or to specific areas: examples include "construction technology", "medical technology", or "state-of-the-art technology".
The human race's use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The prehistorical discovery of the ability to control fire increased the available sources of food and the invention of the wheel helped humans in travelling in and controlling their environment. Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to interact on a global scale. However, not all technology has been used for peaceful purposes; the development of weapons of ever-increasing destructive power has progressed throughout history, from clubs to nuclear weapons.
Technology has affected society and its surroundings in a number of ways. In many societies, technology has helped develop more advanced economies (including today's global economy) and has allowed the rise of a leisure class. Many technological processes produce unwanted by-products, known as pollution, and deplete natural resources, to the detriment of the Earth and its environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and new technology often raises new ethical questions. Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, a term originally applied only to machines, and the challenge of traditional norms.
Philosophical debates have arisen over the present and future use of technology in society, with disagreements over whether technology improves the human condition or worsens it. Neo-Luddism, anarcho-primitivism, and similar movements criticise the pervasiveness of technology in the modern world, claiming that it harms the environment and alienates people; proponents of ideologies such as transhumanism and techno-progressivism view continued technological progress as beneficial to society and the human condition. Indeed, until recently, it was believed that the development of technology was restricted only to human beings, but recent scientific studies indicate that other primates and certain dolphin communities have developed simple tools and learned to pass their knowledge to other generations.
Thursday, August 7, 2008
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JINBARA FEAT AHLI FIKIR
ROBOT
ADAM
CUMA DIA
SONAR
FULL ALBUM
MEET UNCLE HUSSAIN
BURONAN CINTA
THE LIMA
Yovie & Nuno - 01. Dia MilikkuYovie & Nuno - 02. Menjaga HatiYovie & Nuno - 03. Janji SuciYovie & Nuno - 04. Bunga JiwakuYovie & Nuno - 05. Seperti BintangYovie & Nuno - 06. Ku Tak Suka Lagu IniYovie & Nuno - 07. Sejuta BintangYovie & Nuno - 08. HeyYovie & Nuno - 09. Jalan Diam-DiamYovie & Nuno - 10. Tak Pandai MemilihYovie & Nuno - 11. Sempat Memiliki
JINBARA FEAT AHLI FIKIR
ROBOT
ADAM
CUMA DIA
SONAR
FULL ALBUM
MEET UNCLE HUSSAIN
BURONAN CINTA
THE LIMA
Yovie & Nuno - 01. Dia MilikkuYovie & Nuno - 02. Menjaga HatiYovie & Nuno - 03. Janji SuciYovie & Nuno - 04. Bunga JiwakuYovie & Nuno - 05. Seperti BintangYovie & Nuno - 06. Ku Tak Suka Lagu IniYovie & Nuno - 07. Sejuta BintangYovie & Nuno - 08. HeyYovie & Nuno - 09. Jalan Diam-DiamYovie & Nuno - 10. Tak Pandai MemilihYovie & Nuno - 11. Sempat Memiliki
TEKNOLOGI MAKLUMAT (ICT)
Teknologi Maklumat (Information Technology) atau IT dan Teknologi Maklumat dan Komunikasi (Information and Communication Technology) atau ICT merupakan teknologi yang diperlukan untuk pemprosesan data. Ruang lingkup tajuknya sangat luas: berkenaan segala aspek dalam pengurusan dan pemprosesan maklumat. Secara tepat dan mudah: penggunaan komputer dan perisian untuk mengubah, menyimpan, melindungi, memproses, memindah, melihat, dan mendapatkan maklumat tanpa mengira tempat dan waktu.
Komponen Teknologi Maklumat
Teknologi Maklumat boleh dipecah kepada komponen atau bahagian untuk memudahkan kajian dalam bidang ini. Komponen tersebut adalah Teknologi, Organisasi dan Pengguna. Selain daripada itu terdapat juga tafsiran di mana komponen utama teknologi maklumat ialah komputer(perisian,maklumat,tatacara,manusia), rangkaian komunikasi dan tahu-guna( know-how ). Ia boleh digambarkan seperti berikut:
Komponen Teknologi Maklumat.
Teknologi
Teknologi merujuk kepada Perkakasan, Perisian dan Sistem Telekomunikasi yang digunakan di dalam pengurusan dan pemprosesan maklumat.
Perkakasan komputer seperti unit pemproses pusat (CPU), ingatan (RAM), cakera keras (HDD), papan kekunci (keyboard), tetikus (mouse) dan sebagainya amat penting dalam proses kemasukan, pemprosesan dan penyimpanan maklumat.
Perisian komputer seperti sistem operasi (OS) yang popular termasuk Linux, UNIX, Mac OS dan Windows dan aplikasi produktiviti pejabat seperti OpenOffice atau Microsoft Office serta perisian Internet seperti pelayar web (Mozilla, Netscape Navigator, Safari dan Internet Explorer) memainkan peranan besar dalam teknologi maklumat. Ini kerana ia merupakan perisian yang paling banyak digunakan oleh pengguna komputer setiap hari. Untuk mengetahui lebih lanjut tentang pengkelasannya sila rujuk tajuk Perisian.
Dari segi komersial dan pembangunan sistem, perisian komputer boleh dibahagian kepada dua iaitu:
* Perisian Bebas / Sumber Terbuka - Secara amnya, boleh didapati secara PERCUMA atau dibeli berserta kod sumber seperti Linux, FreeBSD, dan OpenOffice.
* Perisian Komersial / Sumber Tertutup - Secara amnya, lesen menggunakan perisian perlu dibeli manakala kod sumber tidak diberikan seperti Microsoft Windows dan Miscrosoft Office. Namun begitu , untuk mengimbang kebangkitan penggunaan perisian sumber terbuka, syarikat Microsoft telah melancarkan kempen yang dipanggil kongsi sumber (share source). Dengan konsep ini, pengguna komersial dan pihak kerajaan boleh 'melihat' kod sumber perisian Miscrosoft. Namun begitu, pengguna tidak dibenarkan untuk mengguna, menyunting atau mengubah kod sumber tersebut. Pengguna juga perlu menandatangani satu perjanjian untuk membolehkan mereka melihat kod sumber tersebut.
Sistem Telekomunikasi merupakan komponen yang amat penting selepas perkakasan dan perisian. Ia merupakan rangkaian dan jambatan yang menyambungkan semua sistem komputer dan sistem telekomunikasi di seluruh dunia seperti Internet, satelit, dan sistem telefon. Ia merupakan kombinasi beberapa teknologi seperti:
* Protokol / Senibina Telekomunikasi - TCP/IP, OSI dan SNA, dsb
* Teknologi Telekomunikasi/ Rangkaian - ATM, X.25, Frame Relay, 3G, SMS, MMS, Bluetooth, dsb
* Teknologi Media Penghantaran - Wayar tembaga, Gentian Optik, Gelombang Mikro, Radio dan Satelit
Organisasi
Merupakan tempat dimana teknologi maklumat digunakan, ia mempengaruhi pengurusan dan pemprosesan maklumat tersebut. Ia mungkin boleh dilihat dari sudut pentadbiran organisasi yang membahagikan organisasi kepada tiga bahagian iaitu peringkat operasi, taktikal dan strategik dimana setiap peringkat memerlukan sistem yang berbeza.
Pengguna
Merupakan pengguna teknologi maklumat yang boleh dipecahkan kepada pengguna yang mengguna dan pengguna yang mentadbir maklumat tersebut.
Pengguna teknologi maklumat: Pengguna sistem yang tidak mentadbir sistem tersebut seperti kerani, jururuwang, pengurus, dsb
Pentadbir teknologi maklumat: Juruteknik komputer, pengurus teknologi maklumat, juru analisa sistem , pengaturcara program , dsb
Sejarah teknologi maklumat
Istilah "teknologi maklumat" muncul pada sekitar dekad 1970-an. Bagaimanapun, konsepnya yang asas boleh dikesani jauh lebih lama lagi. Pada sepanjang abad ke-20, pihak tentera telah berikat dengan berbagai-bagai industri untuk membangunkan elektronik, komputer, dan teori maklumat. Secara sejarah, pihak tentera telah mendorong penyelidikan-penyelidikan tersebut dengan memotivasi dan membiayai inovasi dalam bidang penjenteraan dan pengkomputan.
Komputer komersil yang pertama ialah UNIVAC I yang direka bentuk oleh J. Presper Eckert dan John Mauchly untuk Biro Banci Amerika Syarikat. Akhir dekad 1970-an memperlihatkan kebangkitan mikrokomputer, diikuti dengan rapat oleh komputer peribadi IBM pada tahun 1981. Sejak dari masa itu, empat generasi komputer telah berkembang, dengan setiap generasi melambangkan satu langkah yang dicirikan oleh perkakasan yang semakin kecil dan berupaya. Generasi pertama menggunakan tiub vakum, dengan generasi-generasi kedua dan ketiga masing-masing menggunakan transistor dan litar bersepadu. Generasi keempat, iaitu generasi terkini, menggunakan sistem-sistem yang lebih rumit seperti penyepaduan skala sangat besar (VLSI).
Teknologi maklumat pada hari ini
Pada hari ini, istilah teknologi maklumat telah diperluas untuk merangkumi banyak aspek pengkomputan dan teknologi, dengan istilah ini lebih dapat dikenal, berbanding dengan dahulu. Payung teknologi maklumat adalah amat besar, dan meliputi banyak bidang.
Ahli-ahi profesional melakukan berbagai-bagai tugas yang berbeza-beza dari pemasangan perisian penggunaan sehingga perekaan bentuk rangkaian komputer dan pangkalan data maklumat. Sebilangan tugas yang dilakukan oleh mereka adalah seperti yang berikut:
* Pengurusan data
* Pengurusan sistem
* Perangkaian komputer
* Perekaan bentuk perisian
* Perekaan bentuk sistem pangkalan data
* Sistem maklumat pengurusan (MIS)
Senarai topik berkait yang lebih luas dibekalkan di bawah.
Pertubuhan industri
Seluruh dunia
Perikatan Teknologi dan Perkhidmatan Maklumat Dunia (WITSA) ialah sebuah konsortium yang terdiri dari melebihi 60 buah persatuan industri teknologi maklumat (IT) daripada ekonomi-ekonomi di seluruh dunia. Diasaskan pada tahun 1978 dengan nama Persatuan Industri Perkhidmatan Pengkomputan Dunia, WITSA semakin memainkan peranan sokongan yang aktif terhadap persoalan-persoalan dasar awam tentang penciptaan infrastruktur maklumat sejagat yang kuat dan berkesan.
Pertubuhan-pertubuhan utama yang lain termasuk:
* Amerika Syarikat: Persatuan Teknologi Maklumat Amerika (ITAA), sebuah kumpulan perdagangan industri untuk syarikat-syarikat teknologi maklumat Amerika Syarikat.
* NASSCOM, sebuah persatuan untuk syarikat-syarikat teknologi maklumat India.
* United Kingdom: Persatuan Komputer British (BCS), sebuah badan untuki mereka yang bertugas dalam bidang teknologi maklumat di United Kingdom. Ia adalah badan pengkomputan profesional yang terbesar di United Kingdom, dengan keahlian melebihi 58,000 orang ahli di melebihi 100 buah negara di seluruh dunia.
Komponen Teknologi Maklumat
Teknologi Maklumat boleh dipecah kepada komponen atau bahagian untuk memudahkan kajian dalam bidang ini. Komponen tersebut adalah Teknologi, Organisasi dan Pengguna. Selain daripada itu terdapat juga tafsiran di mana komponen utama teknologi maklumat ialah komputer(perisian,maklumat,tatacara,manusia), rangkaian komunikasi dan tahu-guna( know-how ). Ia boleh digambarkan seperti berikut:
Komponen Teknologi Maklumat.
Teknologi
Teknologi merujuk kepada Perkakasan, Perisian dan Sistem Telekomunikasi yang digunakan di dalam pengurusan dan pemprosesan maklumat.
Perkakasan komputer seperti unit pemproses pusat (CPU), ingatan (RAM), cakera keras (HDD), papan kekunci (keyboard), tetikus (mouse) dan sebagainya amat penting dalam proses kemasukan, pemprosesan dan penyimpanan maklumat.
Perisian komputer seperti sistem operasi (OS) yang popular termasuk Linux, UNIX, Mac OS dan Windows dan aplikasi produktiviti pejabat seperti OpenOffice atau Microsoft Office serta perisian Internet seperti pelayar web (Mozilla, Netscape Navigator, Safari dan Internet Explorer) memainkan peranan besar dalam teknologi maklumat. Ini kerana ia merupakan perisian yang paling banyak digunakan oleh pengguna komputer setiap hari. Untuk mengetahui lebih lanjut tentang pengkelasannya sila rujuk tajuk Perisian.
Dari segi komersial dan pembangunan sistem, perisian komputer boleh dibahagian kepada dua iaitu:
* Perisian Bebas / Sumber Terbuka - Secara amnya, boleh didapati secara PERCUMA atau dibeli berserta kod sumber seperti Linux, FreeBSD, dan OpenOffice.
* Perisian Komersial / Sumber Tertutup - Secara amnya, lesen menggunakan perisian perlu dibeli manakala kod sumber tidak diberikan seperti Microsoft Windows dan Miscrosoft Office. Namun begitu , untuk mengimbang kebangkitan penggunaan perisian sumber terbuka, syarikat Microsoft telah melancarkan kempen yang dipanggil kongsi sumber (share source). Dengan konsep ini, pengguna komersial dan pihak kerajaan boleh 'melihat' kod sumber perisian Miscrosoft. Namun begitu, pengguna tidak dibenarkan untuk mengguna, menyunting atau mengubah kod sumber tersebut. Pengguna juga perlu menandatangani satu perjanjian untuk membolehkan mereka melihat kod sumber tersebut.
Sistem Telekomunikasi merupakan komponen yang amat penting selepas perkakasan dan perisian. Ia merupakan rangkaian dan jambatan yang menyambungkan semua sistem komputer dan sistem telekomunikasi di seluruh dunia seperti Internet, satelit, dan sistem telefon. Ia merupakan kombinasi beberapa teknologi seperti:
* Protokol / Senibina Telekomunikasi - TCP/IP, OSI dan SNA, dsb
* Teknologi Telekomunikasi/ Rangkaian - ATM, X.25, Frame Relay, 3G, SMS, MMS, Bluetooth, dsb
* Teknologi Media Penghantaran - Wayar tembaga, Gentian Optik, Gelombang Mikro, Radio dan Satelit
Organisasi
Merupakan tempat dimana teknologi maklumat digunakan, ia mempengaruhi pengurusan dan pemprosesan maklumat tersebut. Ia mungkin boleh dilihat dari sudut pentadbiran organisasi yang membahagikan organisasi kepada tiga bahagian iaitu peringkat operasi, taktikal dan strategik dimana setiap peringkat memerlukan sistem yang berbeza.
Pengguna
Merupakan pengguna teknologi maklumat yang boleh dipecahkan kepada pengguna yang mengguna dan pengguna yang mentadbir maklumat tersebut.
Pengguna teknologi maklumat: Pengguna sistem yang tidak mentadbir sistem tersebut seperti kerani, jururuwang, pengurus, dsb
Pentadbir teknologi maklumat: Juruteknik komputer, pengurus teknologi maklumat, juru analisa sistem , pengaturcara program , dsb
Sejarah teknologi maklumat
Istilah "teknologi maklumat" muncul pada sekitar dekad 1970-an. Bagaimanapun, konsepnya yang asas boleh dikesani jauh lebih lama lagi. Pada sepanjang abad ke-20, pihak tentera telah berikat dengan berbagai-bagai industri untuk membangunkan elektronik, komputer, dan teori maklumat. Secara sejarah, pihak tentera telah mendorong penyelidikan-penyelidikan tersebut dengan memotivasi dan membiayai inovasi dalam bidang penjenteraan dan pengkomputan.
Komputer komersil yang pertama ialah UNIVAC I yang direka bentuk oleh J. Presper Eckert dan John Mauchly untuk Biro Banci Amerika Syarikat. Akhir dekad 1970-an memperlihatkan kebangkitan mikrokomputer, diikuti dengan rapat oleh komputer peribadi IBM pada tahun 1981. Sejak dari masa itu, empat generasi komputer telah berkembang, dengan setiap generasi melambangkan satu langkah yang dicirikan oleh perkakasan yang semakin kecil dan berupaya. Generasi pertama menggunakan tiub vakum, dengan generasi-generasi kedua dan ketiga masing-masing menggunakan transistor dan litar bersepadu. Generasi keempat, iaitu generasi terkini, menggunakan sistem-sistem yang lebih rumit seperti penyepaduan skala sangat besar (VLSI).
Teknologi maklumat pada hari ini
Pada hari ini, istilah teknologi maklumat telah diperluas untuk merangkumi banyak aspek pengkomputan dan teknologi, dengan istilah ini lebih dapat dikenal, berbanding dengan dahulu. Payung teknologi maklumat adalah amat besar, dan meliputi banyak bidang.
Ahli-ahi profesional melakukan berbagai-bagai tugas yang berbeza-beza dari pemasangan perisian penggunaan sehingga perekaan bentuk rangkaian komputer dan pangkalan data maklumat. Sebilangan tugas yang dilakukan oleh mereka adalah seperti yang berikut:
* Pengurusan data
* Pengurusan sistem
* Perangkaian komputer
* Perekaan bentuk perisian
* Perekaan bentuk sistem pangkalan data
* Sistem maklumat pengurusan (MIS)
Senarai topik berkait yang lebih luas dibekalkan di bawah.
Pertubuhan industri
Seluruh dunia
Perikatan Teknologi dan Perkhidmatan Maklumat Dunia (WITSA) ialah sebuah konsortium yang terdiri dari melebihi 60 buah persatuan industri teknologi maklumat (IT) daripada ekonomi-ekonomi di seluruh dunia. Diasaskan pada tahun 1978 dengan nama Persatuan Industri Perkhidmatan Pengkomputan Dunia, WITSA semakin memainkan peranan sokongan yang aktif terhadap persoalan-persoalan dasar awam tentang penciptaan infrastruktur maklumat sejagat yang kuat dan berkesan.
Pertubuhan-pertubuhan utama yang lain termasuk:
* Amerika Syarikat: Persatuan Teknologi Maklumat Amerika (ITAA), sebuah kumpulan perdagangan industri untuk syarikat-syarikat teknologi maklumat Amerika Syarikat.
* NASSCOM, sebuah persatuan untuk syarikat-syarikat teknologi maklumat India.
* United Kingdom: Persatuan Komputer British (BCS), sebuah badan untuki mereka yang bertugas dalam bidang teknologi maklumat di United Kingdom. Ia adalah badan pengkomputan profesional yang terbesar di United Kingdom, dengan keahlian melebihi 58,000 orang ahli di melebihi 100 buah negara di seluruh dunia.
PERKENALAN
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